at Related Biological Terms

As applied to enzymes, the regulation of activity by modifications that may be reversible (e.g. phosphorylation or adenylation) or irreversible (e.g. limited proteolysis). (see also post-transcriptional modification; post-translational modification)

The minimum concentration of a detergent at which it will form micelles and below which it is a true solution.

A protein product resulting from mutation that has lost its function but is recognizable by its ability to react with antibodies raised against the normal protein. More broadly, material may cross-react because it bears an epitope in common with the antigen.

control of a metabolic pathway by the product of a different but related pathway, e.g. activation of the reduction of ADP to dADP by dGTP.

Essentially identical to the selected and amplified (protein) binding site oligonucleotide (SAAB) and target detection assay (TDA) procedures; a procedure for identification of consensus sequences of DNA to which a protein, e.g. a transcription factor, may bind. A random polynucleotide sequence is synthesized flanked by two defined sequences that will serve as templates for PCR primers; the polynucleotides are exposed to the DNA-binding protein, any complex that is formed is separated from the unliganded polynucleotides (e.g. by gel shift assay, affinity chromatography, filter binding) and the polynucleotide of the complex is isolated and amplified by PCR; repeated recycling through the sequence of ligand formation, selection and amplification results in a preparation that is sufficiently pure to be cloned into bacteria for larger-scale production. A variant is systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) for identification of RNA sequences, which begins with a mixture of polyribonucleotides and in each cycle produces DNA from the selected RNA-protein complex using reverse transcriptase, amplifies it by PCR, and then produces new RNA transcripts for the next round of selection. CASTing: Wright, W.E. and Funk, W.D. (1993) Trends Biochem. Sci. 18, 77-80; SAAB: Blackwell, T.K. and Weintraub, H.W. (1990) Science 250, 1104-1110; SELEX: Turek, C. and Gold, L. (1990) Science 249, 505-510; TDA: Thiesen, H.-J. and Bach, C. (1990) Nucleic Acids Res. 18, 3203-3209; Ouellette, M.M. and Wright, W.E. (1995) Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 6, 65-72 Recommended reading: lipofectamine 2000 protocol

A term applied both to the superfamily of cysteine proteinase inhibitors and to one subgroup; the other subgroups are the kininogens and stefins.

Introduction DNA methylation is an epigenetic modification where a methyl group is added to the DNA molecule, typically at the 5-carbon of the cytosine ring to form 5-methylcytosine. This modification predominantly occurs in CpG dinucleotides, regions where a cytosine nucleotide is followed by a guanine nucleotide in the DNA sequence. DNA methylation is a key regulatory mechanism involved in gene expression, cellular differentiation, and maintenance of genomic stability. It plays crucial roles in normal development and is implicated in various diseases, including cancer. Principles of DNA Methylation Mechanism of Methylation Enzymatic Action: DNA methylation is catalyzed by DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs): DNMT1: Primarily maintains methylation patterns after DNA replication. DNMT3A and DNMT3B: Involved in de novo methylation during development. Methyl Group Source: The methyl group is donated by S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), a universal methyl donor. CpG Islands Definition: CpG islands are regions rich in CpG sites, often near gene promoters, typically unmethylated in active genes. Methylation Patterns: Methylation in CpG islands can silence genes by blocking transcription factor binding and modifying chromatin. Methylation-Induced Gene Silencing Gene Silencing: Methylation in promoter regions inhibits transcription factor access. Chromatin Remodeling: Recruits methyl-binding proteins and histone modifiers to condense chromatin. Functions of DNA Methylation Regulation of Gene Expression Epigenetic Control: Acts as a molecular switch to regulate gene expression without changing DNA sequence. Cell Type-Specific Patterns: Distinct methylation profiles help define cell identity and function. Genomic Stability Suppression of Transposable Elements: Silences repetitive sequences to protect genome integrity. Prevention of Unwanted Recombination: Maintains heterochromatin to prevent chromosomal abnormalities. X-Chromosome Inactivation Dosage Compensation: In female mammals, one X chromosome is inactivated via DNA methylation to balance gene dosage. DNA Methylation in Health and Disease Development and Differentiation Role in Embryogenesis: Guides cellular differentiation and tissue-specific gene expression. Stem Cell Renewal: Methylation patterns affect stem cell maintenance and lineage commitment. Cancer Aberrant Methylation: Hypermethylation silences tumor suppressor genes; hypomethylation activates oncogenes. Biomarker Potential: Methylation profiles aid in cancer detection, prognosis, and monitoring via methods like bisulfite sequencing. Neurological Disorders Epigenetic Dysregulation: Altered methylation is linked to autism, schizophrenia, and Alzheimer’s disease. Memory and Learning: Methylation regulates neuronal gene expression, affecting synaptic plasticity and memory. Methods for Studying DNA Methylation Bisulfite Sequencing Principle: Converts unmethylated cytosines to uracil; methylated cytosines remain unchanged, allowing base-level resolution. Application: Genome-wide methylation analysis. Methylation-Specific PCR (MSP) Method: Uses methylation-sensitive primers post-bisulfite treatment. Advantages: Cost-effective for targeted analysis. Limitations: Less quantitative than sequencing. Enzyme-Based Techniques Methylation-Sensitive Restriction Enzymes: Cut DNA depending on methylation status at recognition sites. Combined with PCR: Enables methylation detection at specific loci. DNA Methylation Arrays High-Throughput Analysis: Assess methylation at thousands of CpG sites simultaneously. Applications: Used in epigenome-wide association studies (EWAS). Factors Influencing DNA Methylation Genetic and Environmental Interactions Diet and Nutrition: Nutrients like folate, B12, and methionine affect SAM levels and methylation. Environmental Exposures: Toxins, pollutants, and stress can alter DNA methylation patterns. Aging Methylation Changes: Aging is linked to global hypomethylation and promoter-specific hypermethylation. Epigenetic Inheritance Transgenerational Effects: Some methylation marks can persist through cell division or even pass to offspring. Future Directions in DNA Methylation Research Epigenome Editing CRISPR-Based Tools: Target methylation at specific loci to study its regulatory roles. Therapeutic Potential: Could reverse disease-related methylation patterns in cancer and neurological disorders. Single-Cell Methylation Profiling Advances in Resolution: Allows analysis of methylation at single-cell level, revealing cellular heterogeneity. Implications: Deeper understanding of complex tissues like brain and tumor microenvironments. Integration with Multi-Omics Approaches Comprehensive Analyses: Merging methylation data with transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics. Goal: Build holistic models of gene regulation and disease mechanisms. Conclusion DNA methylation is a crucial epigenetic modification that regulates gene expression and maintains genomic stability. It plays significant roles in development, health, and disease, making it an important area of study in epigenetics and molecular biology. With advancements in technologies and understanding of epigenetic mechanisms, research in DNA methylation continues to expand, opening up potential therapeutic and diagnostic applications.

(= pentose phosphate pathway)

The abstraction of the elements of ammonia from a compound, e.g. from histidine by the histidine lyase reaction, or from AMP in the adenylate deaminase reaction.

A sequence of a death-associated protein or its gene, which is common to several death-associated proteins.